Structure
Not a diagram of dots on rings — a Monte-Carlo sample of the actual probability density |ψ|² for each occupied subshell. Drag to rotate. Blue and violet mark opposite signs of the wavefunction, which is what makes bonding possible.
Measured values
Every bar shows where manganese sits among all 118 elements for that property.
Sources: IUPAC 2021 standard atomic weights · CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics · NIST. Values marked ~ are predicted rather than measured.
Size, to scale
Radius 127 pm — that is 0.127 nm, so about 3937 million of them side by side would span a millimetre.
Thermal range
Manganese is liquid over a 815 K window, from 1519 K to 2334 K.
The story
Manganese is the unsung hero of steelmaking and the secret ingredient that makes your smartphone battery work. This hard, brittle, silvery-gray metal is absolutely essential for modern civilization - virtually all steel contains manganese, and without it, our infrastructure would literally crumble. Despite being the 12th most abundant element on Earth, manganese often goes unnoticed even though it's in everything from the steel beams in skyscrapers to the batteries in electric cars. Discovered in 1774 by Swedish chemist Johan Gottlieb Gahn, manganese was initially confused with magnesium and iron due to their similar properties. The name comes from the Latin "magnes" meaning magnet, though pure manganese is actually only weakly magnetic. What makes this element absolutely crucial is its ability to remove sulfur and oxygen impurities from steel, acting like a molecular cleanup crew during the steelmaking process. Here's something mind-blowing: manganese exists in more oxidation states than almost any other element, ranging from -3 to +7. This incredible versatility makes it useful in everything from purple glass (Mn³⁺) to powerful oxidizing agents like potassium permanganate (Mn⁷⁺) that can disinfect water and treat wounds. Manganese plays a vital role in biology too. It's an essential trace element for all living things, helping plants perform photosynthesis and enabling humans to process carbohydrates and fats. Manganese-containing enzymes are crucial for bone formation, wound healing, and antioxidant protection. Deficiency can cause skeletal abnormalities and reproductive problems. The ocean floor is literally covered with trillions of tons of manganese nodules - potato-sized rocks containing manganese, iron, nickel, and copper that grew over millions of years. These nodules could be the future of deep-sea mining, though the environmental implications are still being studied.
Johan Gottlieb Gahn isolated metallic manganese in 1774 through carbon reduction of manganese dioxide, though the element was recognized earlier by Carl Wilhelm Scheele and others. Gahn's systematic approach established manganese as a distinct element rather than a form of iron or other known metals.
Commercial manganese production began with ferromanganese smelting in the 1840s, revolutionizing steel production. The development of electric arc furnaces in the early 1900s enabled efficient manganese alloy production, supporting the steel industry's rapid expansion during industrialization.
Applications
Manganese serves as steel's essential partner, removing harmful sulfur and oxygen while strengthening iron alloys that build our modern world. This versatile element enables everything from railroad tracks to aluminum beverage cans through its unique metallurgical and chemical properties.
Ferromanganese containing 75-80% manganese serves as steel's primary deoxidizer and desulfurizer, removing impurities that would otherwise cause brittleness and hot cracking. Every ton of steel requires 6-9 kg of manganese, making steel production the largest consumer of manganese globally. Manganese steel containing 11-14% manganese exhibits extraordinary work-hardening properties, ideal for mining equipment, railroad crossings, and military armor where impact resistance is critical.
3000-series aluminum alloys containing 0.8-1.5% manganese provide excellent corrosion resistance and formability for beverage cans, automotive body panels, and architectural applications. Manganese prevents grain growth during aluminum processing, maintaining strength and preventing orange-peel surface defects during forming operations.
Alkaline batteries utilize manganese dioxide (MnO₂) cathodes that provide reliable 1.5V output through manganese's ability to accept electrons during discharge. Lithium-ion batteries increasingly use manganese-based cathodes (LiMn₂O₄) for improved safety and thermal stability in electric vehicle applications, with manganese helping prevent thermal runaway conditions.
Potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) serves as a powerful oxidizing agent for water treatment, removing iron, manganese, and organic contaminants from municipal water supplies. Manganese dioxide catalyzes hydrogen peroxide decomposition in industrial processes and serves as an oxidation catalyst in organic chemical synthesis.
Where it comes from
950 mg/kg of Earth's crust · more abundant than 90% of elements
Manganese forms through oxygen burning processes in massive stars and neutron capture reactions during stellar evolution. Its cosmic abundance reflects manganese's nuclear stability and formation through multiple nucleosynthesis pathways in both regular stellar fusion and explosive supernova events.
Earth's crust contains approximately 1,050 parts per million manganese, making it the 12th most abundant element. This high concentration enables widespread manganese occurrence in rocks, soils, and water systems, supporting both geological processes and biological functions.
Sedimentary manganese deposits formed through chemical precipitation in ancient oceans account for 80% of global reserves. The Kalahari manganese field in South Africa contains the world's largest high-grade deposits, formed through hydrothermal and sedimentary processes. Australia's Pilbara region hosts significant manganese resources in banded iron formations.
Manganese nodules covering vast areas of deep ocean floors represent enormous potential resources, containing 24-30% manganese along with nickel, copper, and cobalt. These potato-sized concretions form through extremely slow precipitation processes over millions of years, though deep-sea mining remains technologically and environmentally challenging.
Manganese participates actively in Earth's biogeochemical cycles as an essential element for photosynthesis and enzyme function in all living organisms. Soil manganese availability affects plant growth and agricultural productivity, while marine manganese cycling influences ocean chemistry and productivity.
Handling
Manganese toxicity primarily affects the central nervous system, causing manganism - a Parkinson's-like condition from chronic inhalation exposure. While manganese is essential for health, occupational exposure requires careful monitoring and control.
Chronic manganese exposure causes irreversible neurological damage including tremors, muscle rigidity, and psychiatric symptoms. Ferromanganese production and welding operations present the highest exposure risks through inhalation of manganese-containing dusts and fumes.
Respiratory protection, local exhaust ventilation, and biological monitoring through blood and urine manganese levels help prevent neurological damage. Early detection and exposure reduction can prevent progression of manganism symptoms.
Quick answers
Manganese (symbol Mn) is element 25 on the periodic table, a transition metal in period 4, group 7. Essential in trace amounts, brittle in bulk, and the reason your steel does not shatter in the cold. At room temperature it is a solid.
[Ar] 3d⁵ 4s², giving 4 occupied shells holding 2, 8, 13, 2 electrons respectively.Manganese melts at 1519 K (1245.9 °C) and boils at 2334 K (2060.9 °C).
The standard atomic weight of Manganese is 54.938 u. That is a weighted average across its naturally occurring isotopes, which is why it is rarely a whole number.
Manganese has a density of 7.21 g/cm³. Water is 1.0 g/cm³, so a block of manganese is about 7.2× heavier.
Manganese has a Pauling electronegativity of 1.55. The scale runs from 0.70 (francium, the least greedy for electrons) to 3.98 (fluorine, the most). Values in this middle band tend to form covalent rather than strongly ionic bonds.
Manganese was discovered in 1774 by Johan Gottlieb Gahn. It is named after latin magnes, "magnet".
Manganese makes up about 950 mg/kg of the Earth's crust — common enough to be mined at scale.