Atomic Mass
267.000000
u
Ionization Energy
6.00
kJ/mol
Rutherfordium serves as the first true superheavy element beyond the actinide series, providing crucial insights into how matter behaves under extreme nuclear charge conditions. Scientists use Rutherfordium to validate theoretical predictions about electron configurations and chemical properties in the superheavy region.
Research teams employ Rutherfordium to investigate nuclear shell effects and fission barriers that govern superheavy element stability. Recent discoveries of Rutherfordium-252 with its 60-nanosecond half-life provide critical data for understanding the "island of stability" predictions.
Rutherfordium enables pioneering studies of relativistic effects in chemistry, where electron velocities reach significant fractions of light speed due to extreme nuclear charge. These studies validate quantum mechanical calculations for superheavy atoms and predict chemical behavior of undiscovered elements.
Scientists use Rutherfordium research to develop and refine hot fusion reaction methods for creating superheavy elements. These techniques involve bombarding actinide targets with medium-mass ions, establishing pathways for synthesizing even heavier elements.
Rutherfordium studies contribute to understanding r-process nucleosynthesis in neutron star mergers and supernovae, where superheavy elements might form naturally in extreme cosmic environments. This research helps explain heavy element abundance patterns in the universe.
Rutherfordium applications are exclusively limited to world-leading nuclear research facilities including GSI in Germany, RIKEN in Japan, Berkeley Lab in the USA, and JINR in Russia. These facilities use Rutherfordium for cutting-edge superheavy element physics and chemistry research.
Research teams utilize Rutherfordium in precision nuclear measurements including spontaneous fission studies, alpha-decay energy determination, and nuclear lifetime measurements. The recent discovery of Rutherfordium-252 provides new data on nuclear stability limits.
Scientists perform revolutionary atom-by-atom chemical studies with Rutherfordium, investigating oxidation states, complex formation, and chemical bonding using gas-phase chromatography and extraction techniques at the ultimate limits of analytical chemistry.
Rutherfordium research drives development of advanced detection technologies including gas-filled separators, position-sensitive detectors, and sophisticated data acquisition systems that enable identification and study of individual superheavy atoms.
Rutherfordium exists only through artificial synthesis in particle accelerators and has never been detected naturally on Earth or in cosmic phenomena. This superheavy element represents matter that exists nowhere else in the known universe except through human technological achievement.
Scientists create Rutherfordium by bombarding plutonium-242 or -244 targets with calcium-48 ions in linear accelerators, or by bombarding californium-249 with carbon-12 or oxygen-16 ions. These "hot fusion" reactions require precise energy calibration to overcome strong electrostatic repulsion.
The most stable Rutherfordium isotope, 267Rf, has a half-life of only 1.3 hours, while most isotopes decay within seconds or minutes. The recently discovered 252Rf survives just 13 microseconds, demonstrating the extreme instability of superheavy nuclei.
Global Rutherfordium production is measured in individual atoms per experiment, with successful synthesis runs producing perhaps 1-10 atoms per hour. Worldwide annual production totals fewer than thousands of atoms across all research facilities combined.
Unlike elements formed through stellar nucleosynthesis or cosmic ray interactions, Rutherfordium cannot exist naturally due to its extremely short half-life and specific nuclear reaction requirements. It represents the pinnacle of artificial element creation.
Rutherfordium's discovery became a major Cold War scientific competition between Soviet scientists at Dubna and American researchers at Berkeley. Both teams claimed priority, leading to a naming controversy that lasted decades until IUPAC resolution in 1997.
In 1964, Georgy Flerov's team at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna reported creating element 104 by bombarding plutonium-242 with neon-22 ions. They proposed the name "kurchatovium" after Igor Kurchatov, father of the Soviet atomic bomb program.
In 1969, Albert Ghiorso's team at Berkeley Lab reported independent synthesis of element 104 by bombarding californium-249 with carbon-12 and oxygen-16 ions. They proposed "rutherfordium" honoring New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford, father of nuclear physics.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry resolved the controversy in 1997, officially recognizing both teams' contributions but adopting "rutherfordium" as the standard name. This decision balanced scientific achievement with international diplomacy.
Recent advances in detection technology have confirmed rutherfordium's properties and enabled discovery of new isotopes, including the 2025 discovery of rutherfordium-252 with unprecedented precision, validating theoretical predictions about superheavy nuclear behavior.
MAXIMUM DANGER: Rutherfordium is an intensely radioactive superheavy element that undergoes spontaneous fission and alpha decay, emitting dangerous high-energy particles and neutron radiation. Even individual atoms pose theoretical health risks requiring absolute containment protocols.
Rutherfordium isotopes undergo spontaneous nuclear fission, producing high-energy fission fragments, neutrons, and gamma radiation. This creates multiple simultaneous radiation hazards that can penetrate protective equipment and cause severe biological damage.
Research requires maximum containment systems including heavily shielded hot cells, robotic manipulation, neutron shielding, and continuous multi-parameter radiation monitoring. Emergency response teams with specialized medical treatment capabilities must be immediately available.
All materials contacting Rutherfordium become extremely hazardous nuclear waste requiring long-term secure storage. Contamination creates persistent radiation hazards lasting multiple decades, necessitating specialized disposal procedures and environmental monitoring.
Essential information about Rutherfordium (Rf)
Rutherfordium is unique due to its atomic number of 104 and belongs to the Transition Metal category. With an atomic mass of 267.000000, it exhibits distinctive properties that make it valuable for various applications.
Rutherfordium has several important physical properties:
State at Room Temperature: solid
Rutherfordium has various important applications in modern technology and industry:
Rutherfordium serves as the first true superheavy element beyond the actinide series, providing crucial insights into how matter behaves under extreme nuclear charge conditions. Scientists use Rutherfordium to validate theoretical predictions about electron configurations and chemical properties in the superheavy region.
Research teams employ Rutherfordium to investigate nuclear shell effects and fission barriers that govern superheavy element stability. Recent discoveries of Rutherfordium-252 with its 60-nanosecond half-life provide critical data for understanding the "island of stability" predictions.
Rutherfordium enables pioneering studies of relativistic effects in chemistry, where electron velocities reach significant fractions of light speed due to extreme nuclear charge. These studies validate quantum mechanical calculations for superheavy atoms and predict chemical behavior of undiscovered elements.
Scientists use Rutherfordium research to develop and refine hot fusion reaction methods for creating superheavy elements. These techniques involve bombarding actinide targets with medium-mass ions, establishing pathways for synthesizing even heavier elements.
Rutherfordium studies contribute to understanding r-process nucleosynthesis in neutron star mergers and supernovae, where superheavy elements might form naturally in extreme cosmic environments. This research helps explain heavy element abundance patterns in the universe.
Rutherfordium's discovery became a major Cold War scientific competition between Soviet scientists at Dubna and American researchers at Berkeley. Both teams claimed priority, leading to a naming controversy that lasted decades until IUPAC resolution in 1997.
In 1964, Georgy Flerov's team at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna reported creating element 104 by bombarding plutonium-242 with neon-22 ions. They proposed the name "kurchatovium" after Igor Kurchatov, father of the Soviet atomic bomb program.
In 1969, Albert Ghiorso's team at Berkeley Lab reported independent synthesis of element 104 by bombarding californium-249 with carbon-12 and oxygen-16 ions. They proposed "rutherfordium" honoring New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford, father of nuclear physics.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry resolved the controversy in 1997, officially recognizing both teams' contributions but adopting "rutherfordium" as the standard name. This decision balanced scientific achievement with international diplomacy.
Recent advances in detection technology have confirmed rutherfordium's properties and enabled discovery of new isotopes, including the 2025 discovery of rutherfordium-252 with unprecedented precision, validating theoretical predictions about superheavy nuclear behavior.
Discovered by: <h3><i class="fas fa-globe"></i> International Discovery Race (1964-1969)</h3> <p>Rutherfordium's discovery became a major <strong>Cold War scientific competition</strong> between Soviet scientists at Dubna and American researchers at Berkeley. Both teams claimed priority, leading to a naming controversy that lasted decades until IUPAC resolution in 1997.</p> <h3><i class="fas fa-hammer-sickle"></i> Soviet Union Initial Claims</h3> <p>In 1964, <strong>Georgy Flerov's team</strong> at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna reported creating element 104 by bombarding plutonium-242 with neon-22 ions. They proposed the name "kurchatovium" after Igor Kurchatov, father of the Soviet atomic bomb program.</p> <h3><i class="fas fa-flag-usa"></i> Berkeley Laboratory Counter-Claims</h3> <p>In 1969, <strong>Albert Ghiorso's team</strong> at Berkeley Lab reported independent synthesis of element 104 by bombarding californium-249 with carbon-12 and oxygen-16 ions. They proposed "rutherfordium" honoring New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford, father of nuclear physics.</p> <h3><i class="fas fa-handshake"></i> IUPAC Resolution (1997)</h3> <p>The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry resolved the controversy in <strong>1997</strong>, officially recognizing both teams' contributions but adopting "rutherfordium" as the standard name. This decision balanced scientific achievement with international diplomacy.</p> <h3><i class="fas fa-rocket"></i> Modern Confirmation</h3> <p>Recent advances in detection technology have confirmed rutherfordium's properties and enabled discovery of new isotopes, including the 2025 discovery of <strong>rutherfordium-252</strong> with unprecedented precision, validating theoretical predictions about superheavy nuclear behavior.</p>
Year of Discovery: 1964
Rutherfordium exists only through artificial synthesis in particle accelerators and has never been detected naturally on Earth or in cosmic phenomena. This superheavy element represents matter that exists nowhere else in the known universe except through human technological achievement.
Scientists create Rutherfordium by bombarding plutonium-242 or -244 targets with calcium-48 ions in linear accelerators, or by bombarding californium-249 with carbon-12 or oxygen-16 ions. These "hot fusion" reactions require precise energy calibration to overcome strong electrostatic repulsion.
The most stable Rutherfordium isotope, 267Rf, has a half-life of only 1.3 hours, while most isotopes decay within seconds or minutes. The recently discovered 252Rf survives just 13 microseconds, demonstrating the extreme instability of superheavy nuclei.
Global Rutherfordium production is measured in individual atoms per experiment, with successful synthesis runs producing perhaps 1-10 atoms per hour. Worldwide annual production totals fewer than thousands of atoms across all research facilities combined.
Unlike elements formed through stellar nucleosynthesis or cosmic ray interactions, Rutherfordium cannot exist naturally due to its extremely short half-life and specific nuclear reaction requirements. It represents the pinnacle of artificial element creation.
⚠️ Caution: Rutherfordium is radioactive and requires special handling procedures. Only trained professionals should work with this element.
MAXIMUM DANGER: Rutherfordium is an intensely radioactive superheavy element that undergoes spontaneous fission and alpha decay, emitting dangerous high-energy particles and neutron radiation. Even individual atoms pose theoretical health risks requiring absolute containment protocols.
Rutherfordium isotopes undergo spontaneous nuclear fission, producing high-energy fission fragments, neutrons, and gamma radiation. This creates multiple simultaneous radiation hazards that can penetrate protective equipment and cause severe biological damage.
Research requires maximum containment systems including heavily shielded hot cells, robotic manipulation, neutron shielding, and continuous multi-parameter radiation monitoring. Emergency response teams with specialized medical treatment capabilities must be immediately available.
All materials contacting Rutherfordium become extremely hazardous nuclear waste requiring long-term secure storage. Contamination creates persistent radiation hazards lasting multiple decades, necessitating specialized disposal procedures and environmental monitoring.