70 Yb Ytterbium 173.045
Lanthanide f-block Period 6

Ytterbium

Yb · Element 70

A soft rare earth whose electrical resistance jumps under pressure, making it a stress gauge.

STATE AT 20°C Solid
ATOMIC MASS 173.045 u
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION [Xe] 4f¹⁴ 6s²
69Tm All 118 71Lu

Structure

The ytterbium atom

Not a diagram of dots on rings — a Monte-Carlo sample of the actual probability density |ψ|² for each occupied subshell. Drag to rotate. Blue and violet mark opposite signs of the wavefunction, which is what makes bonding possible.

Orbital cloud

Measured values

Property sheet

Every bar shows where ytterbium sits among all 118 elements for that property.

Physical

Density 6.9 g/cm³ 40%
Melting point 1092 K 45%
Boiling point 1469 K 35%
Specific heat 0.155 J/g·K
Thermal conductivity 38.5 W/m·K 61%

Atomic

Atomic radius 176 pm 60%
Covalent radius 187 pm
Van der Waals radius 242 pm

Electronic

Electronegativity 1.1 10%
Ionisation energy 603 kJ/mol 34%
Electron affinity 48.2 kJ/mol 31%

Occurrence

Abundance in crust 3.2 mg/kg 63%

Identity

SymbolYb
Atomic number70
Atomic mass173.045 u
CategoryLanthanide
Blockf
Crystal structureface-centered cubic
Oxidation states+2, +3
Discovered1878
Discovered byJean Charles Galissard de Marignac

Sources: IUPAC 2021 standard atomic weights · CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics · NIST. Values marked ~ are predicted rather than measured.

Size, to scale

How big is a ytterbium atom?

Radius 176 pm — that is 0.176 nm, so about 2841 million of them side by side would span a millimetre.

Thermal range

Solid, liquid, gas — and when

Ytterbium is liquid over a 377 K window, from 1092 K to 1469 K.

Where it sits

Position in the table

Ytterbium sits in the lanthanide series, printed below the main grid.

OTHER LANTHANIDES

57La 58Ce 59Pr 60Nd 61Pm 62Sm 63Eu 64Gd 65Tb 66Dy 67Ho 68Er 69Tm 71Lu
All lanthanides

The story

What ytterbium is, and how we found it

A soft rare earth whose electrical resistance jumps under pressure, making it a stress gauge.

The discovery of ytterbium

🔬 Swiss-French Collaborative Discovery

Discovered by: Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in Geneva, Switzerland (1878)

Named after: Ytterby, Sweden - completing the quartet of elements from this famous quarry

🧪 The Final Ytterby Element

Ytterbium's discovery completed the remarkable story of Ytterby quarry, which ultimately provided names for four different elements. Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac, working at the University of Geneva, was investigating erbium oxide samples when he discovered evidence of yet another unknown element in 1878.

Marignac had spent years refining techniques for rare earth separation and had become one of Europe's leading experts in lanthanide chemistry. His systematic approach combined advanced analytical chemistry with meticulous spectroscopic analysis.

⚗️ Spectroscopic Innovation

The key to Marignac's success was his use of improved spectroscopic techniques. He observed previously unknown absorption lines in the near-infrared region that appeared consistently in specific fractions of his separated erbium samples.

Through systematic fractional crystallization of erbium compounds, Marignac isolated a component that showed distinctly different optical properties from any known rare earth element. The characteristic absorption lines at 977 and 1015 nanometers provided definitive proof of a new element.

🏆 Ytterby's Complete Legacy

By naming his discovery "ytterbium," Marignac completed Ytterby quarry's remarkable contribution to the periodic table. This small Swedish locality had now provided names for yttrium (1794), erbium (1843), terbium (1843), and ytterbium (1878) - a unique achievement in the history of chemistry.

🔬 Verification Challenges

Marignac's ytterbium discovery initially faced skepticism from the scientific community due to the extreme chemical similarity between adjacent lanthanides. Definitive confirmation required independent verification by multiple research groups using different analytical techniques.

⚛️ The Lutetium Confusion

In 1907, Marignac's "ytterbium" was found to contain two distinct elements. What he had isolated was actually a mixture of ytterbium and lutetium (element 71). This discovery led to a priority dispute between Georges Urbain in France and Carl Auer von Welsbach in Austria over who first separated the two elements.

🔬 Modern Vindication

Today we recognize Marignac's fundamental contribution to rare earth chemistry, even though his original "ytterbium" sample contained multiple elements. His systematic approach to separation and spectroscopic analysis established methodologies that enabled subsequent discoveries.

The element that Marignac painstakingly separated using 19th-century techniques now enables the world's most precise measurements of time and space, demonstrating how fundamental scientific discoveries can have applications far beyond their discoverers' imagination.

🏅 Scientific Recognition

Marignac's work on rare earth elements earned him international recognition and helped establish Switzerland as a center for precision analytical chemistry. His techniques influenced generations of chemists and contributed to our modern understanding of atomic structure and the periodic table.

Applications

What ytterbium is used for

The Precision Technology Element

Ytterbium has emerged as a critical element for next-generation precision technologies, quantum science, and advanced materials research. Despite being one of the less abundant rare earth elements, ytterbium's unique electronic and optical properties have made it central for cutting-edge scientific instruments and emerging quantum technologies.

⚛️ Atomic Clock Revolution

Ytterbium-based atomic clocks represent a high point of timekeeping precision, achieving accuracy levels that would lose less than one second over the entire age of the universe. These optical lattice clocks use laser-cooled ytterbium atoms trapped in crystalline structures of light to measure time with unprecedented precision.

The ytterbium optical clock operates at frequencies over 100,000 times higher than cesium atomic clocks, enabling detection of gravitational time dilation effects over height differences of just a few centimeters. These capabilities are revolutionizing fundamental physics research and enabling new tests of Einstein's relativity theories.

🌐 Next-Generation GPS Technology

Ytterbium atomic clocks are being developed for next-generation satellite navigation systems that will provide positioning accuracy to within centimeters rather than meters. These ultra-precise timepieces will enable autonomous vehicle navigation, precision agriculture, and scientific measurements requiring extreme positional accuracy.

🔬 Stress & Deformation Measurement

Ytterbium-doped fiber optic sensors provide ultra-sensitive strain and temperature measurements for structural health monitoring of bridges, buildings, aircraft, and spacecraft. These sensors can detect deformations smaller than the width of an atom, enabling predictive maintenance and safety monitoring of critical infrastructure.

💎 Advanced Laser Systems

Ytterbium fiber lasers deliver exceptional performance for materials processing, scientific research, and industrial applications. These high-power, efficient laser systems can cut through the thickest metals, weld dissimilar materials with perfect precision, and enable advanced manufacturing techniques impossible with conventional lasers.

⚛️ Quantum Computing Components

Ytterbium ions serve as qubits in trapped-ion quantum computers due to their exceptionally long quantum coherence times. Leading quantum computing companies use ytterbium-based systems for quantum information processing, quantum simulation, and quantum networking applications.

🧮 Precision Scientific Instrumentation

Ytterbium's unique electronic structure makes it invaluable for advanced spectroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents, and precision measurement instruments. Research laboratories worldwide depend on ytterbium-based systems for fundamental physics experiments and materials characterization.

🎯 Medical Imaging Enhancement

Ytterbium compounds serve as contrast agents for advanced medical imaging techniques including CT scans and specialized X-ray procedures. These agents provide superior image contrast while reducing patient radiation exposure compared to conventional alternatives.

🌟 Precision & Performance Applications

  • ⏰ Atomic Timekeeping: Ultra-precise optical clocks for scientific research and GPS systems
  • 🏭 Industrial Lasers: High-power fiber lasers for cutting, welding, and materials processing
  • 🏗️ Structural Monitoring: Fiber optic strain sensors for bridges, buildings, and aerospace
  • 🖥️ Quantum Computing: Ion trap qubits and quantum information processing systems
  • 🏥 Medical Imaging: CT scan contrast agents and specialized X-ray applications
  • 📡 Telecommunications: Fiber optic amplifiers and photonic devices

💰 High-Value Niche Markets

Ytterbium applications target premium market segments where exceptional performance justifies higher costs. The atomic clock market alone represents over $500 million annually, with ytterbium systems commanding the highest prices due to superior performance.

🔬 Research & Development Driver

Major technology companies including Google, IBM, and IonQ invest heavily in ytterbium-based quantum computing research. Government agencies worldwide fund ytterbium atomic clock development for next-generation navigation and scientific applications.

📈 Emerging Market Growth

Quantum technology commercialization is driving rapid growth in ytterbium demand. The global quantum computing market is projected to reach $65 billion by 2030, with ytterbium-based ion trap systems representing a significant segment.

🏆 Performance Leadership

Ytterbium-based systems consistently set new performance records in their application areas. From the world's most accurate clocks to the most powerful industrial fiber lasers, ytterbium enables breakthrough capabilities across multiple technology sectors.

Where it comes from

Natural occurrence

3.2 mg/kg of Earth's crust · more abundant than 63% of elements

🌍 Moderate Abundance, Concentrated Sources

Ytterbium occurs in Earth's crust at approximately 3.2 parts per million, making it roughly as abundant as tin and significantly more common than many other heavy rare earth elements. However, economically viable ytterbium deposits remain geographically concentrated and technically challenging to process.

🏔️ Primary Mineral Sources

  • Ion-adsorption clays: Highest ytterbium concentrations in weathered granite deposits
  • Xenotime: Heavy rare earth phosphate mineral (8-15% Yb₂O₃)
  • Monazite: Thorium-bearing phosphate in beach sand deposits
  • Bastnäsite: Light rare earth carbonate with minor ytterbium content

🌏 Global Production Centers

China (85% of global production): Southern China's ion-adsorption clay deposits in Jiangxi, Guangdong, and Fujian provinces contain the world's most significant ytterbium concentrations. These deposits formed through tropical weathering of granite intrusions over millions of years.

Australia: Mount Weld rare earth deposit contains substantial ytterbium reserves, though current processing focuses on light rare earth recovery. Future expansion may include heavy rare earth separation facilities.

Malaysia: Lynas Advanced Materials Plant processes Australian concentrate to produce separated rare earth oxides, including high-purity ytterbium oxide for precision applications.

⚒️ Advanced Separation Technology

Ytterbium separation requires sophisticated multi-stage processes due to lanthanide contraction effects. Solvent extraction using specialized phosphonic acid extractants can selectively separate ytterbium from other heavy rare earths, though complete purification requires dozens of extraction stages.

Ultra-high-purity ytterbium (99.999%) required for atomic clock applications demands additional refinement using zone melting, sublimation, and specialized crystal growth techniques.

🔬 Quality Control Challenges

Precision applications require ytterbium with minimal impurities, particularly transition metals that can interfere with optical and electronic properties. Advanced analytical techniques including ICP-MS and optical spectroscopy ensure product specifications meet demanding application requirements.

♻️ Strategic Recycling

High-value ytterbium applications make recycling economically attractive. Specialized processes can recover ultra-high-purity ytterbium from end-of-life scientific instruments, laser systems, and quantum computing hardware.

🌊 Alternative Sources

Deep-sea polymetallic nodules contain significant ytterbium concentrations, potentially providing future supply diversification. Seawater extraction research continues, though current technology makes marine sources uneconomical.

📊 Supply Chain Security

Given ytterbium's importance for quantum technologies and precision timing systems, supply chain diversification has become a strategic priority for technology-dependent nations. Investment in alternative processing capabilities outside China is increasing.

Handling

Safety

⚠️ Laboratory & Precision Instrument Safety

🟢 Low Hazard Classification

Ytterbium and its compounds present minimal toxicity risks under normal laboratory conditions. Standard safety procedures are adequate for most applications, with special attention to laser safety and ultra-high-purity handling requirements.

🥽 Standard Protective Equipment

  • Eye Protection: Safety glasses for general handling, laser safety goggles for optical systems
  • Hand Protection: Clean nitrile gloves to prevent contamination of high-purity materials
  • Respiratory Protection: Dust mask when handling powdered compounds
  • Clean Room Attire: Specialized clothing for ultra-high-purity applications

⚗️ Purity Preservation

Contamination Control: Ultra-high-purity ytterbium for atomic clock applications requires cleanroom handling procedures. Even trace contamination can compromise performance in precision timing systems.

Laser Safety: Ytterbium fiber lasers can generate extremely high optical powers requiring Class 4 laser safety protocols including controlled access areas, warning systems, and specialized training.

🔬 Precision Instrument Protocols

Atomic clock and quantum computing applications require specialized handling procedures to maintain ultra-low contamination levels. Work must be performed in controlled atmospheres using ultrapure materials and specialized tools.

🚨 Emergency Procedures

  • Eye Contact: Flush with clean water for 15 minutes, seek medical evaluation
  • Skin Contact: Wash thoroughly with soap and water
  • Inhalation: Move to fresh air, monitor for respiratory symptoms
  • Laser Exposure: Discontinue exposure immediately, seek medical attention

🗄️ Storage Requirements

Store ytterbium compounds in inert atmosphere containers to prevent oxidation and contamination. Ultra-high-purity materials require specialized storage systems with controlled temperature, humidity, and atmospheric composition.

♻️ Value Recovery

Given ytterbium's high value and specialized applications, all waste materials should be collected for recycling. Precision instrument components may contain recoverable quantities of ultra-high-purity ytterbium worth significant recovery costs.

📊 Quality Assurance

Workplace exposure limit: 5 mg/m³ as 8-hour time-weighted average for ytterbium compounds. Regular purity analysis required for precision applications to ensure product specifications are maintained.

🌡️ Environmental Controls

Precision ytterbium applications require controlled environmental conditions including temperature stability (±0.1°C), low vibration, and electromagnetic shielding to prevent performance degradation.

Quick answers

Ytterbium: common questions

What is Ytterbium?

Ytterbium (symbol Yb) is element 70 on the periodic table, a lanthanide in period 6. A soft rare earth whose electrical resistance jumps under pressure, making it a stress gauge. At room temperature it is a solid.

What is the electron configuration of Ytterbium?

Ytterbium's ground-state electron configuration is [Xe] 4f¹⁴ 6s², giving 6 occupied shells holding 2, 8, 18, 32, 8, 2 electrons respectively.

What are the melting and boiling points of Ytterbium?

Ytterbium melts at 1092 K (818.9 °C) and boils at 1469 K (1195.9 °C).

What is the atomic mass of Ytterbium?

The standard atomic weight of Ytterbium is 173.045 u. That is a weighted average across its naturally occurring isotopes, which is why it is rarely a whole number.

How dense is Ytterbium?

Ytterbium has a density of 6.9 g/cm³. Water is 1.0 g/cm³, so a block of ytterbium is about 6.9× heavier.

What is the electronegativity of Ytterbium?

Ytterbium has a Pauling electronegativity of 1.1. The scale runs from 0.70 (francium, the least greedy for electrons) to 3.98 (fluorine, the most). A value this low means it readily gives its outer electrons away, forming positive ions.

Who discovered Ytterbium, and when?

Ytterbium was discovered in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac. It is named after ytterby, Sweden.

How common is Ytterbium on Earth?

Ytterbium makes up about 3.2 mg/kg of the Earth's crust — uncommon, but not rare.

← Previous Tm Thulium Element 69 · Lanthanide Next → Lu Lutetium Element 71 · Lanthanide