Copper's exceptional electrical conductivity (second only to silver) makes it indispensable for global power systems. Power transmission lines carry electricity from generation stations to cities using Copper's 59.6 MS/m conductivity. Electric motors in everything from refrigerators to industrial pumps rely on Copper windings that convert electrical energy to mechanical motion with 95%+ efficiency. The electrical industry consumes 65% of global Copper production.
Copper pipes have supplied clean water for over 4000 years, naturally killing bacteria and viruses through the oligodynamic effect. Modern homes use Copper plumbing for reliability, corrosion resistance, and antimicrobial properties. Hospital water systems increasingly specify Copper to prevent Legionella and other waterborne pathogens. Copper-silver ionization systems purify swimming pools and spacecraft water supplies.
Copper's thermal conductivity (401 W/m·K) enables efficient heat exchangers in air conditioners, automotive radiators, and industrial processes. Copper cookware provides unmatched heat distribution for professional kitchens. Power plant condensers use Copper-nickel alloys to transfer waste heat from steam turbines to cooling water, maximizing electrical generation efficiency.
Bronze (Copper-tin) launched civilization's Bronze Age 5000 years ago and remains essential for bearings, ship propellers, and architectural elements. Brass (Copper-zinc) creates musical instruments with perfect acoustics and marine hardware that resists saltwater corrosion. Beryllium Copper forms spark-resistant tools for
The EPA recognizes Copper as the only solid surface that continuously kills bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Hospital door handles, handrails, and bed frames use Copper alloys to reduce healthcare-associated infections by up to 58%. COVID-19 research shows Copper surfaces inactivate the virus within 4 hours, leading to increased adoption in public spaces.
Copper's natural patina creates the distinctive green color of the Statue of Liberty, countless church domes, and modern architectural features. Standing seam Copper roofing lasts 100+ years while developing beautiful blue-green oxidation. Frank Lloyd Wright and other architects specified Copper for its durability, workability, and evolving aesthetic appeal.
Copper catalysts enable methanol synthesis, pharmaceutical production, and petrochemical processing. The Ullmann reaction uses Copper to form carbon-carbon bonds in drug manufacturing. Copper sulfate controls algae in water treatment and provides essential micronutrients for plant growth in agriculture.
Copper ranks as the 25th most abundant element in Earth's crust at 60 parts per million, yet economic concentrations require geological processes that increase local abundance 100-fold. Chile contains 28% of global reserves, primarily in the Atacama Desert where arid conditions preserve sulfide ores. Peru, China, and the Democratic Republic of Congo host additional major deposits formed by diverse geological processes.
Porphyry deposits supply 75% of global Copper production, formed by massive hydrothermal systems associated with subduction zone volcanism. The Chuquicamata mine in Chile - the world's largest open-pit Copper mine - exemplifies these gigantic systems where magmatic fluids transported Copper over millions of years. Molybdenum, gold, and silver often accompany Copper in these deposits, creating polymetallic ore bodies.
Subducting oceanic plates generate Copper-rich magmas that intrude the overlying crust as porphyritic stocks. Hydrothermal fluids at 300-600°C transport Copper as chloride complexes, depositing chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂) and bornite (Cu₅FeS₄) in fracture networks. This process requires precise temperature, pressure, and chemical conditions that occur primarily in convergent plate boundaries.
The Copper Belt of Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo contains stratiform Copper deposits formed in ancient rift basins. Copper-bearing fluids migrated through sedimentary rocks, precipitating chalcocite (Cu₂S) and malachite [Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂] in reduced environments. These deposits provided Copper for African civilizations thousands of years ago.
Cyprus-type deposits form at mid-ocean ridges where hydrothermal vents precipitate Copper sulfides on the seafloor. The island of Cyprus gave Copper its name (Latin "cuprum") due to extensive ancient mining of these deposits. Modern analogs include black smoker vents that concentrate Copper, zinc, and lead in polymetallic sulfides.
The Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan contains the world's largest native Copper deposits, where metallic Copper occurs naturally without chemical combination. Precambrian flood basalts created reducing conditions that deposited pure Copper in amygdules and fractures. Native Americans mined this Copper for 7000 years, creating tools and ornaments traded throughout North America.
Copper forms through slow neutron capture (s-process) in asymptotic giant branch stars and through
Seawater contains 0.25 parts per billion Copper, essential for marine organisms but
Copper serves as an essential micronutrient for all life forms, functioning in enzymes like cytochrome oxidase and superoxide dismutase. Plants require Copper for photosynthesis and iron metabolism, while animals need it for connective tissue formation and iron transport. Soil Copper availability influences agricultural productivity and ecosystem health.
Weathering of Copper sulfides creates spectacular secondary minerals. Azurite [Cu₃(CO₃)₂(OH)₂] produces brilliant blue crystals, while malachite [Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂] creates vibrant green banded patterns. Chrysocolla forms blue-green silicate masses, and cuprite (Cu₂O) displays deep red octahedral crystals. These colorful minerals have attracted humans for millennia.
Copper represents humanity's first intentional use of metal, beginning around 9000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent. Archaeological evidence from Çayönü Tepesi in Turkey shows copper beads and tools that predate agriculture. Unlike iron or aluminum, native copper occurs naturally in metallic form, allowing early humans to work it without complex smelting technology.
Around 5000 BCE, civilizations in the Balkans and Middle East discovered that heating certain green and blue rocks (copper carbonates) with charcoal produced pure copper metal. This breakthrough launched the Chalcolithic Age (Copper Age), fundamentally changing human technology. The Iceman (Ötzi), discovered in the Alps and dating to 3300 BCE, carried a copper axe that demonstrated advanced metallurgy.
Bronze - an alloy of copper and tin - emerged around 3500 BCE in the Near East, launching the Bronze Age that lasted until 1200 BCE. This discovery likely occurred accidentally when copper ores containing tin were smelted together. Bronze proved superior to pure copper for weapons, tools, and art, driving international trade networks as civilizations sought tin sources.
Sumerian texts from 2500 BCE describe sophisticated copper working techniques, including lost-wax casting and alloy composition. The Standard of Ur and countless artifacts demonstrate their mastery of copper and bronze metallurgy. Mesopotamian merchants established trade routes reaching from Afghanistan (tin) to Cyprus (copper).
The island of Cyprus became synonymous with copper in the ancient world, giving the metal its Latin name "cuprum" (from "aes cyprium" - metal of Cyprus). Roman mines on Cyprus operated for over 1500 years, producing copper that built an empire. Roman engineering used copper for coins, plumbing, roofing, and artistic works that survive today.
Egyptian metallurgists achieved remarkable sophistication, creating copper pipes for temple drainage systems and elaborate bronze artifacts. The Edwin Smith Papyrus (1600 BCE) describes medical uses of copper compounds for treating infections - anticipating modern antimicrobial applications by 3600 years.
European exploration was partly driven by the search for copper and other metals. Spanish conquistadors encountered advanced copper metallurgy in the Americas, where indigenous peoples had independently developed sophisticated techniques. The Copper Country of Michigan's Upper Peninsula provided copper for Union forces during the Civil War.
The discovery of electricity transformed copper from useful metal to essential material. Michael Faraday's electromagnetic induction experiments (1831) demonstrated electricity's potential, while Thomas Edison's power distribution systems made copper wiring a necessity. The Bessemer process (1856) enabled large-scale steel production, creating demand for copper in steam engines and industrial machinery.
Antoine Lavoisier included copper in his groundbreaking "Elements of Chemistry" (1789), establishing it as a fundamental element. John Dalton's atomic theory (1803) provided the theoretical framework for understanding copper's properties. X-ray crystallography revealed copper's face-centered cubic structure, explaining its exceptional electrical and thermal conductivity.
The electrical age created unprecedented copper demand. Westinghouse and General Electric competed to develop AC power systems that required massive amounts of copper wire. World Wars I and II demonstrated copper's strategic importance, leading to government stockpiling and recycling programs. The development of refrigeration, air conditioning, and electronics further expanded copper applications.
OSHA PEL: 1 mg/m³ for Copper fume, 1 mg/m³ for Copper dusts and mists (8-hour TWA). NIOSH REL: 1 mg/m³ for Copper compounds, 0.1 mg/m³ for Copper fume to prevent metal fume fever. ACGIH TLV: 0.2 mg/m³ for Copper fume, recognizing increased respiratory sensitization risks from welding and high-temperature operations.
Copper fume fever affects welders and metalworkers exposed to Copper oxide fumes, causing flu-like symptoms including fever, chills, muscle aches, and metallic taste. Symptoms typically begin 4-12 hours after exposure and resolve within 24-48 hours. Monday morning fever occurs when workers lose tolerance over weekends. Prevention requires adequate ventilation and respiratory protection during hot work.
Copper sulfate ingestion causes severe gastrointestinal irritation, nausea, vomiting, and potentially fatal liver damage at doses above 10-20 grams.
Inhalation: Move to fresh air immediately, monitor for delayed respiratory symptoms, seek medical attention for persistent cough or breathing difficulty. Skin contact: Wash with soap and water, remove contaminated clothing. Eye contact: Flush with clean water for 15 minutes, seek medical attention for persistent irritation. Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting, give water or milk, seek immediate medical attention.
EPA drinking water standard: 1.3 mg/L action level for Copper in public water systems. Higher concentrations cause gastrointestinal distress and may indicate plumbing corrosion. Aquatic
Store Copper materials in dry conditions to prevent oxidation and dust formation. Grinding and cutting operations require local exhaust ventilation to control Copper dust. Welding and brazing need specialized fume extraction systems. Regular housekeeping prevents Copper dust accumulation that could create respiratory hazards or combustible dust conditions.
Workers with significant Copper exposure require baseline and periodic liver function tests, complete blood counts, and respiratory assessments. Serum Copper and ceruloplasmin levels help identify excessive absorption. Early detection of Wilson's disease in workers allows proper medical management and prevents serious complications.
Essential information about Copper (Cu)
Copper is unique due to its atomic number of 29 and belongs to the Transition Metal category. With an atomic mass of 63.546000, it exhibits distinctive properties that make it valuable for various applications.
Its electron configuration ([Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s¹) determines its chemical behavior and bonding patterns.
Copper has several important physical properties:
Density: 8.9600 g/cm³
Melting Point: 1357.77 K (1085°C)
Boiling Point: 2835.00 K (2562°C)
State at Room Temperature: Solid
Atomic Radius: 128 pm
Copper has various important applications in modern technology and industry:
Copper's exceptional electrical conductivity (second only to silver) makes it indispensable for global power systems. Power transmission lines carry electricity from generation stations to cities using Copper's 59.6 MS/m conductivity. Electric motors in everything from refrigerators to industrial pumps rely on Copper windings that convert electrical energy to mechanical motion with 95%+ efficiency. The electrical industry consumes 65% of global Copper production.
Copper pipes have supplied clean water for over 4000 years, naturally killing bacteria and viruses through the oligodynamic effect. Modern homes use Copper plumbing for reliability, corrosion resistance, and antimicrobial properties. Hospital water systems increasingly specify Copper to prevent Legionella and other waterborne pathogens. Copper-silver ionization systems purify swimming pools and spacecraft water supplies.
Copper's thermal conductivity (401 W/m·K) enables efficient heat exchangers in air conditioners, automotive radiators, and industrial processes. Copper cookware provides unmatched heat distribution for professional kitchens. Power plant condensers use Copper-nickel alloys to transfer waste heat from steam turbines to cooling water, maximizing electrical generation efficiency.
Bronze (Copper-tin) launched civilization's Bronze Age 5000 years ago and remains essential for bearings, ship propellers, and architectural elements. Brass (Copper-zinc) creates musical instruments with perfect acoustics and marine hardware that resists saltwater corrosion. Beryllium Copper forms spark-resistant tools for
The EPA recognizes Copper as the only solid surface that continuously kills bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Hospital door handles, handrails, and bed frames use Copper alloys to reduce healthcare-associated infections by up to 58%. COVID-19 research shows Copper surfaces inactivate the virus within 4 hours, leading to increased adoption in public spaces.
Copper's natural patina creates the distinctive green color of the Statue of Liberty, countless church domes, and modern architectural features. Standing seam Copper roofing lasts 100+ years while developing beautiful blue-green oxidation. Frank Lloyd Wright and other architects specified Copper for its durability, workability, and evolving aesthetic appeal.
Copper catalysts enable methanol synthesis, pharmaceutical production, and petrochemical processing. The Ullmann reaction uses Copper to form carbon-carbon bonds in drug manufacturing. Copper sulfate controls algae in water treatment and provides essential micronutrients for plant growth in agriculture.
Copper represents humanity's first intentional use of metal, beginning around 9000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent. Archaeological evidence from Çayönü Tepesi in Turkey shows copper beads and tools that predate agriculture. Unlike iron or aluminum, native copper occurs naturally in metallic form, allowing early humans to work it without complex smelting technology.
Around 5000 BCE, civilizations in the Balkans and Middle East discovered that heating certain green and blue rocks (copper carbonates) with charcoal produced pure copper metal. This breakthrough launched the Chalcolithic Age (Copper Age), fundamentally changing human technology. The Iceman (Ötzi), discovered in the Alps and dating to 3300 BCE, carried a copper axe that demonstrated advanced metallurgy.
Bronze - an alloy of copper and tin - emerged around 3500 BCE in the Near East, launching the Bronze Age that lasted until 1200 BCE. This discovery likely occurred accidentally when copper ores containing tin were smelted together. Bronze proved superior to pure copper for weapons, tools, and art, driving international trade networks as civilizations sought tin sources.
Sumerian texts from 2500 BCE describe sophisticated copper working techniques, including lost-wax casting and alloy composition. The Standard of Ur and countless artifacts demonstrate their mastery of copper and bronze metallurgy. Mesopotamian merchants established trade routes reaching from Afghanistan (tin) to Cyprus (copper).
The island of Cyprus became synonymous with copper in the ancient world, giving the metal its Latin name "cuprum" (from "aes cyprium" - metal of Cyprus). Roman mines on Cyprus operated for over 1500 years, producing copper that built an empire. Roman engineering used copper for coins, plumbing, roofing, and artistic works that survive today.
Egyptian metallurgists achieved remarkable sophistication, creating copper pipes for temple drainage systems and elaborate bronze artifacts. The Edwin Smith Papyrus (1600 BCE) describes medical uses of copper compounds for treating infections - anticipating modern antimicrobial applications by 3600 years.
European exploration was partly driven by the search for copper and other metals. Spanish conquistadors encountered advanced copper metallurgy in the Americas, where indigenous peoples had independently developed sophisticated techniques. The Copper Country of Michigan's Upper Peninsula provided copper for Union forces during the Civil War.
The discovery of electricity transformed copper from useful metal to essential material. Michael Faraday's electromagnetic induction experiments (1831) demonstrated electricity's potential, while Thomas Edison's power distribution systems made copper wiring a necessity. The Bessemer process (1856) enabled large-scale steel production, creating demand for copper in steam engines and industrial machinery.
Antoine Lavoisier included copper in his groundbreaking "Elements of Chemistry" (1789), establishing it as a fundamental element. John Dalton's atomic theory (1803) provided the theoretical framework for understanding copper's properties. X-ray crystallography revealed copper's face-centered cubic structure, explaining its exceptional electrical and thermal conductivity.
The electrical age created unprecedented copper demand. Westinghouse and General Electric competed to develop AC power systems that required massive amounts of copper wire. World Wars I and II demonstrated copper's strategic importance, leading to government stockpiling and recycling programs. The development of refrigeration, air conditioning, and electronics further expanded copper applications.
Discovered by: <div class="discovery-section"> <h3>🏺 Prehistoric Origins: Humanity's First Metal</h3> <p>Copper represents humanity's first intentional use of metal, beginning around <strong>9000 BCE</strong> in the Fertile Crescent. Archaeological evidence from Çayönü Tepesi in Turkey shows copper beads and tools that predate agriculture. Unlike iron or aluminum, <strong>native copper</strong> occurs naturally in metallic form, allowing early humans to work it without complex smelting technology.</p> <h3>🔥 The Smelting Revolution (5000 BCE)</h3> <p>Around <strong>5000 BCE</strong>, civilizations in the Balkans and Middle East discovered that heating certain green and blue rocks (copper carbonates) with charcoal produced pure copper metal. This breakthrough launched the <strong>Chalcolithic Age</strong> (Copper Age), fundamentally changing human technology. The <strong>Iceman</strong> (Ötzi), discovered in the Alps and dating to 3300 BCE, carried a copper axe that demonstrated advanced metallurgy.</p> <h3>⚗️ Ancient Alloy Innovation: The Bronze Age</h3> <p><strong>Bronze</strong> - an alloy of copper and tin - emerged around <strong>3500 BCE</strong> in the Near East, launching the Bronze Age that lasted until 1200 BCE. This discovery likely occurred accidentally when copper ores containing tin were smelted together. Bronze proved superior to pure copper for weapons, tools, and art, driving international trade networks as civilizations sought tin sources.</p> <h4>Mesopotamian Mastery</h4> <p>Sumerian texts from 2500 BCE describe sophisticated copper working techniques, including lost-wax casting and alloy composition. The <strong>Standard of Ur</strong> and countless artifacts demonstrate their mastery of copper and bronze metallurgy. Mesopotamian merchants established trade routes reaching from Afghanistan (tin) to Cyprus (copper).</p> <h3>🏛️ Classical Civilizations & Cyprus</h3> <p>The island of <strong>Cyprus</strong> became synonymous with copper in the ancient world, giving the metal its Latin name "cuprum" (from "aes cyprium" - metal of Cyprus). Roman mines on Cyprus operated for over 1500 years, producing copper that built an empire. Roman engineering used copper for coins, plumbing, roofing, and artistic works that survive today.</p> <h3>🏛️ Egyptian Sophistication</h3> <p>Egyptian metallurgists achieved remarkable sophistication, creating copper pipes for temple drainage systems and elaborate bronze artifacts. The <strong>Edwin Smith Papyrus</strong> (1600 BCE) describes medical uses of copper compounds for treating infections - anticipating modern antimicrobial applications by 3600 years.</p> <h3>🚢 Age of Exploration & Global Trade</h3> <p>European exploration was partly driven by the search for copper and other metals. <strong>Spanish conquistadors</strong> encountered advanced copper metallurgy in the Americas, where indigenous peoples had independently developed sophisticated techniques. The <strong>Copper Country</strong> of Michigan's Upper Peninsula provided copper for Union forces during the Civil War.</p> <h3>⚡ Industrial Revolution Transformation</h3> <p>The discovery of electricity transformed copper from useful metal to essential material. <strong>Michael Faraday's</strong> electromagnetic induction experiments (1831) demonstrated electricity's potential, while <strong>Thomas Edison's</strong> power distribution systems made copper wiring a necessity. The <strong>Bessemer process</strong> (1856) enabled large-scale steel production, creating demand for copper in steam engines and industrial machinery.</p> <h3>🔬 Modern Scientific Understanding</h3> <p><strong>Antoine Lavoisier</strong> included copper in his groundbreaking "Elements of Chemistry" (1789), establishing it as a fundamental element. <strong>John Dalton's</strong> atomic theory (1803) provided the theoretical framework for understanding copper's properties. <strong>X-ray crystallography</strong> revealed copper's face-centered cubic structure, explaining its exceptional electrical and thermal conductivity.</p> <h3>🏭 20th Century Industrial Applications</h3> <p>The electrical age created unprecedented copper demand. <strong>Westinghouse</strong> and <strong>General Electric</strong> competed to develop AC power systems that required massive amounts of copper wire. World Wars I and II demonstrated copper's strategic importance, leading to government stockpiling and recycling programs. The development of refrigeration, air conditioning, and electronics further expanded copper applications.</p> </div>
Year of Discovery: Ancient
Copper ranks as the 25th most abundant element in Earth's crust at 60 parts per million, yet economic concentrations require geological processes that increase local abundance 100-fold. Chile contains 28% of global reserves, primarily in the Atacama Desert where arid conditions preserve sulfide ores. Peru, China, and the Democratic Republic of Congo host additional major deposits formed by diverse geological processes.
Porphyry deposits supply 75% of global Copper production, formed by massive hydrothermal systems associated with subduction zone volcanism. The Chuquicamata mine in Chile - the world's largest open-pit Copper mine - exemplifies these gigantic systems where magmatic fluids transported Copper over millions of years. Molybdenum, gold, and silver often accompany Copper in these deposits, creating polymetallic ore bodies.
Subducting oceanic plates generate Copper-rich magmas that intrude the overlying crust as porphyritic stocks. Hydrothermal fluids at 300-600°C transport Copper as chloride complexes, depositing chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂) and bornite (Cu₅FeS₄) in fracture networks. This process requires precise temperature, pressure, and chemical conditions that occur primarily in convergent plate boundaries.
The Copper Belt of Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo contains stratiform Copper deposits formed in ancient rift basins. Copper-bearing fluids migrated through sedimentary rocks, precipitating chalcocite (Cu₂S) and malachite [Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂] in reduced environments. These deposits provided Copper for African civilizations thousands of years ago.
Cyprus-type deposits form at mid-ocean ridges where hydrothermal vents precipitate Copper sulfides on the seafloor. The island of Cyprus gave Copper its name (Latin "cuprum") due to extensive ancient mining of these deposits. Modern analogs include black smoker vents that concentrate Copper, zinc, and lead in polymetallic sulfides.
The Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan contains the world's largest native Copper deposits, where metallic Copper occurs naturally without chemical combination. Precambrian flood basalts created reducing conditions that deposited pure Copper in amygdules and fractures. Native Americans mined this Copper for 7000 years, creating tools and ornaments traded throughout North America.
Copper forms through slow neutron capture (s-process) in asymptotic giant branch stars and through
Seawater contains 0.25 parts per billion Copper, essential for marine organisms but
Copper serves as an essential micronutrient for all life forms, functioning in enzymes like cytochrome oxidase and superoxide dismutase. Plants require Copper for photosynthesis and iron metabolism, while animals need it for connective tissue formation and iron transport. Soil Copper availability influences agricultural productivity and ecosystem health.
Weathering of Copper sulfides creates spectacular secondary minerals. Azurite [Cu₃(CO₃)₂(OH)₂] produces brilliant blue crystals, while malachite [Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂] creates vibrant green banded patterns. Chrysocolla forms blue-green silicate masses, and cuprite (Cu₂O) displays deep red octahedral crystals. These colorful minerals have attracted humans for millennia.
Earth's Abundance: 6.00e-5
Universe Abundance: 6.00e-10
General Safety: Copper should be handled with standard laboratory safety precautions including protective equipment and proper ventilation.
OSHA PEL: 1 mg/m³ for Copper fume, 1 mg/m³ for Copper dusts and mists (8-hour TWA). NIOSH REL: 1 mg/m³ for Copper compounds, 0.1 mg/m³ for Copper fume to prevent metal fume fever. ACGIH TLV: 0.2 mg/m³ for Copper fume, recognizing increased respiratory sensitization risks from welding and high-temperature operations.
Copper fume fever affects welders and metalworkers exposed to Copper oxide fumes, causing flu-like symptoms including fever, chills, muscle aches, and metallic taste. Symptoms typically begin 4-12 hours after exposure and resolve within 24-48 hours. Monday morning fever occurs when workers lose tolerance over weekends. Prevention requires adequate ventilation and respiratory protection during hot work.
Copper sulfate ingestion causes severe gastrointestinal irritation, nausea, vomiting, and potentially fatal liver damage at doses above 10-20 grams.
Inhalation: Move to fresh air immediately, monitor for delayed respiratory symptoms, seek medical attention for persistent cough or breathing difficulty. Skin contact: Wash with soap and water, remove contaminated clothing. Eye contact: Flush with clean water for 15 minutes, seek medical attention for persistent irritation. Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting, give water or milk, seek immediate medical attention.
EPA drinking water standard: 1.3 mg/L action level for Copper in public water systems. Higher concentrations cause gastrointestinal distress and may indicate plumbing corrosion. Aquatic
Store Copper materials in dry conditions to prevent oxidation and dust formation. Grinding and cutting operations require local exhaust ventilation to control Copper dust. Welding and brazing need specialized fume extraction systems. Regular housekeeping prevents Copper dust accumulation that could create respiratory hazards or combustible dust conditions.
Workers with significant Copper exposure require baseline and periodic liver function tests, complete blood counts, and respiratory assessments. Serum Copper and ceruloplasmin levels help identify excessive absorption. Early detection of Wilson's disease in workers allows proper medical management and prevents serious complications.