Category: Post-transition metal
Atomic Number: 82
Period: 6 | Group: 14
Block: p-block
Dense, soft and endlessly useful — and quietly responsible for centuries of chronic poisoning.
| Property | Value |
|---|---|
| Phase at STP | Solid |
| Density | 11.34200000 g/cm³ |
| Melting Point | 600.61 K (327.46 °C) |
| Boiling Point | 2022.00 K (1748.85 °C) |
| Heat Capacity | N/A |
| Property | Value |
|---|---|
| Atomic Mass | 207.2000 u |
| Electronegativity (Pauling) | 2.33 |
| Oxidation States | -4, +2, +4 |
| Electron Configuration | [Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p² |
| Discovered By | Unknown |
|---|---|
| Discovery Year | Ancient |
| Named After | Anglo-Saxon lead; symbol from Latin plumbum |
An ancient metal
Lead has been known since prehistory. It is easy to smelt from galena, and the oldest known metallic lead objects, from northern Mesopotamia and eastern Anatolia, are more than 7,500 years old. The Egyptians used lead compounds in cosmetics, and the Romans used the metal on a large scale for water pipes, roofing and containers.
Plumbum
The Latin name plumbum gives lead its symbol, Pb, and the words plumbing and plumber, from the Roman lead pipes. The English name lead comes from Old English.
Recognizing the danger
Lead poisoning was described in antiquity, but lead use kept growing. From the 1920s, lead added to gasoline spread lead around the world. Research by scientists such as Clair Patterson and Herbert Needleman showed the harm, and leaded gasoline, lead paint and lead pipes were phased out from the 1970s onward.
| ISOTOPE | Neutrons | Natural Abundance | Half-life | Decay Mode |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pb-204 | 122 | 1.4% | ≥1.4 × 10¹⁷ yrs | α |
| Pb-206 | 124 | 24.1% | Stable | - |
| Pb-207 | 125 | 22.1% | Stable | - |
| Pb-208 | 126 | 52.4% | Stable | - |
| Pb-210 | 128 | - | 22.20 yrs | β⁻ |
Data: IAEA Nuclear Data Section, LiveChart of Nuclides, ground-state evaluations, retrieved October 10, 2026. Abundance is the share of atoms in the natural element; a dash means the isotope has no standard natural abundance.
Batteries
Lead-acid batteries account for most of the lead used today. They start almost every car, truck and motorcycle and provide backup power for telecommunications networks and data centers. They are also among the most recycled products: in many countries nearly all used batteries are collected, and more than half of the lead produced each year is recycled metal.
Radiation shielding and other uses
Shielding: lead sheets, bricks and aprons block X-rays and gamma rays in hospitals, dental offices and nuclear facilities.
Ammunition and weights: bullets, shot, fishing sinkers, wheel weights and ballast, although lead shot and sinkers are being restricted in many places to protect wildlife.
Construction: lead sheet for roofing and flashing, and sheathing for some power cables.
Glass and alloys: lead crystal glass, and lead alloys for bearings and some solders.
Uses that were phased out
Because of its toxicity, lead has been removed from gasoline (the last country stopped selling leaded gasoline for cars in 2021), from household paint, from new drinking water pipes and, in the EU and many other places, from most electronics solder.
Galena ore
| Earth's Crust | 0.0000140000 ppm |
|---|---|
| Universe | 0.0000000010 % |